The use of transistors expanded rapidly. But a worrisome cloud loomed
on the horizon. As the number of components – transistors, diodes,
resistors, capacitors, and connections – grew, the tedious task of
assembly resulted in more defects. A few visionary engineers began
looking for ways to fashion circuits from a single block of material.
Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments was a pioneer in making such
“integrated circuits.” Kilby’s first successful attempt used
germanium, but then silicon came to be recognized and used by Kilby
and others -- its advantages outweighing its disadvantages.
Photolithography was used to define the circuit elements. The
monolithic idea also arose in a different form at Fairchild
Semiconductor. Both companies got patents for their products.
Shockley Transistor also invented a diode. When manufactured in
quantity, too many diodes being defective led to market failure.
Another Shockley attempt at transistors didn’t fare well either.
Observing Shockley Transistor’s hemorrhaging cash and Fairchild’s
great success, Arnold Beckman finally sought to sell off his
transistor division and did.
These miniature circuits were a new and revolutionary advance. They
are the ultimate practical expression of the theoretical insights of
Bardeen, Shockley, Noyes and others, filtered and amplified by
hundreds of scientists following in their footsteps. Many of the
insights came at Bell Labs, Bell Labs and Western Electric were slow
to to appreciate the value of monolithic integration. The phone
company did not have the same pressing need for miniaturization that
prodded the computer and military markets. Other firms, especially
Texas Instruments and Fairchild, led the way.
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